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Atomic Structure mock test

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Introduction to Chemical kinetics

Introduction Chemical kinetics is the branch of physical chemistry which deals with a study of the speed of chemical reactions. Such studies also enable us to understand the mechanism by which the reactions occur. In chemical equilibria, only the initial and final states were considered, the energy relations between the reactants and the products being governed by thermodynamics where the time or the intermediate states were of no concern. In chemical kinetics the rate of the reaction process is followed; in other words, the time variable is introduced. This, we shall see, reveals not only the influence of different factors on the progress of the reaction but it also throws light on the mechanism through which reactant molecules are transformed into products. It is a common knowledge that apart from the chemical nature, the rates of reaction depend on the concentration of reactants and the temperature. It will be seen later that many reaction rates are greatly influenced by the...

Hyperconjugation effect

Most of the delocalisation effects involve π electrons. There are only a few examples where conjugation involves σ electrons. This type of conjugation may be called extended conjugation. When a carbon containing at least one hydrogen is attached to a π bond, the σ electrons of the C-H bond become involved in delocalisation with the π electrons of the unsaturated system, i.e., this is a σ-π conjugation. This special type of conjugation is known as hyperconjugation. The prefix, hyper- of the title means excessive. Therefore, the excessive, i.e., extended conjugation involving σ orbitals generally of C-H and C-X(X = F, Cl) or C-C bond, is called hyperconjugation. Hyperconjugation also includes σ-p (partially filled or vacant) type of orbital overlapping. According to molecular orbital theory, an extended orbital is the result of such kind of σ-π or σ-p overlaps. Thus in propene, delocalisation occurs between C=C π M.O. and C-H σ M.O.s of the carbon atom to the double bon...

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